Formulating the research problem
One should try to gain
knowledge of the various steps involved in conducting research, which have been
suggested by different authors on the basis of their experiences. Every one,
who is conducting research, will have to use his own skills in designing action
oriented planning terms of various steps or stages essential in conducting
social, economic or business research.
Steps / stages of
Research:
In planning a research
project/study, it is necessary to anticipate all activities, which must be
undertaken. Research activities are classified and grouped in to various steps
or stages. In business research they are generally called steps; while in
social sciences these are referred to as stages. Boyd and Brown have used the
word steps while Baily, the social scientist, has referred to the research
process in terms of five stages. These research stages/steps are a part of
research process, which cannot be mechanically contrived sequences of
interdependent steps or stages. These consist of a number of interrelated, or
overlapping activities. Each step of process is dependent to some extent on the
other. The first step must be planned with the second, third, and so on, in
mind.
The individual steps in the
research process can be viewed, according to Boyd, Westfall and Starch, as
consisting of the following seven steps:
I.
Formulating the
study.
II.
Preparing a list
of the needed information.
III.
Designing the
data collection project.
IV.
Selecting a
sample type.
V.
Determining the
sample size.
VI.
Organizing the
fieldwork.
VII.
Analyzing the
collected data and reporting the findings.
According to Boyd, the four
steps, purpose of the study, information needed, data collection form, and
tabulation are highly interrelated. The collection form is strongly related to
information needed. Lyden O.Brown has divided the research procedure into the
following eight basic steps:
I.
The situation
analysis.
II.
The informal
investigation.
III.
The formal
research.
IV.
Collection of
the data.
V.
Tabulation and
analysis.
VI.
Interpretation
of results.
VII.
Presentation of
the results.
VIII.
Follow-up.
According to Clover and
Balsley. The procedure of designing a research project consists of the
following five steps;
I.
Formulation of
problems, Locating and defining problems.
II.
Setting of
hypothesis.
III.
Collection of
data.
IV.
Analysis of
data.
V.
Preparing
report.
Gilbert A. Churchill has
listed the following “sequence of steps, called the research process, that can
be followed when designing the research project”:
I.
Problem
formulation.
II.
Research design.
III.
Design of
collection method and form.
IV.
Sample design
and data collection.
V.
Analysis and interpretation
of data.
VI.
Research report.
Bailey has called the steps
listed above as stages of research and pointed “although each research project
is unique in some ways, all projects, regardless of the phenomenon being
studied, involve the same basic stages”. These according to Bailey are as
follows;
I.
Choosing the
research problem and stating the hypothesis.
II.
Formulating the
research designing.
III.
Gathering the
data.
IV.
Coding and
analyzing the data.
V.
Interpreting the
results so as test the hypothesis.
According to Tull and
Hawkins, the process of designing a research project requires that a number of
steps be taken, although not always conducted in the exact sequence shown,
these steps are to;
I.
Obtain agreement
on statement of the management problem.
II.
Obtain background
information on the problem. Situation.
III.
Get information on the manager problem’s
situational model.
IV.
Formulate own
problem situation model.
V.
Restate
management problem as a research problem.
VI.
Develop
alternative ways of collecting and analyzing the data required.
VII.
Estimate the
time and financial requirements of each design.
VIII.
Choosing among
the conducting design.
IX.
Prepare a
research proposal.
Basic Steps for
conducting Survey
The following are the basic
steps for conducting a survey:
1.
Determine the
objectives of the survey. Arrange meetings, discussions with senior executives
for whom the survey is to be conducted.
2.
When the
objectives of the survey were pre-determined and provided by the sponsoring
agency, it is still necessary to hold meetings with the responsible officers in
order to seek clarification.
3.
There should be
mutual agreement between the chief executives of the sponsoring agency and the
survey team prior to finalization for research methodology.
4.
Preparation of
research methodology with sufficient details about each part, so that an action
oriented to control the activities of researchers within given time and cost is
possible.
5.
Preparation of
Questionnaire: There are two basic goals in designing a questionnaire for any
study, to collect information relevant to the determined objectives of the
study and to collect this information with maximum reliability and validity.
6.
Pre-testing:
Pre-testing is a technique of examining the workability or accuracy of the
questionnaire, before starting to collect the data from the sample. This step
is taken before the preparation of the final questionnaire/interview schedule
to be used.
7.
Sampling: There
are numerous methods and techniques of sampling. In case of homogenous
population a smaller percentage of samples will suffice, whereas, a
heterogeneous population may demand a stratified sampling. While drawing a
stratified sample it is better to give higher representation to smaller strata
as compared to larger stratum.
8.
Data collection:
Selection of Field Assistants/Interviews: Personal characteristics: Keeping in
view the characteristics of the population under study, age, education, ethnic
background and personal appearance of the candidate be given top consideration.
9.
Training: As
there is no universally standard survey or interview; there can be no standard
training programme. The intensity and nature of training will depend on the
size of the interviewers, past experience, type and size of the questionnaire
and the time and money available. Thus, the time required for training may
range from one day to four days.
10. Problems:
location of the sample unit: the location of the sample is very important task
for the supervisors as well as interviewer. The wrong selection of the sample
will not fulfill the objective of the survey. The validity and accuracy of the
data will certainly depend upon the right approach to the sample as instructed
by the supervisors and project incharge.
11. Field problem:
interviewers often face the following problems:-
12. Peoples’ suspicion
13. No proper place for interviewing, disturb the
interviewers.
14. Contracting leader is difficult in case of clashes.
15. Lack of ability to know language of the respondents.
16. Non co-operation from the respondents.
17. Field Supervision: the role of field supervisor is
also of great importance. It is therefore, necessary that the supervisor should
be the full-time, experienced, and preferably the senior members of the
research organization. In order to accomplish the cited task efficiently, the
supervisors should be sober, experienced, polite and responsible type of
person. They should be provided with all the necessary facilities.
18. Quality Control: a daily check of the completed
questionnaire followed by a prompt discussion between the supervisor and the
interviewers concerned will ensure better quality right from the beginning. In
absence of a real foolproof method of checking for quality control, it is
possible only to avoid such situations by a categorically making it clear to
the interviewers during the training that various checks will be made on their
work on various stages in order to maintain an acceptable standards.
19. Data processing: The following are the major steps
which are normally followed while processing data manually:
Ø
Preparation of
an editing plan for checking and verifying.
Ø
Coding and
filling interview schedules.
Ø
Interview
schedules are verified from sample unit.
Ø
The filled in
interview schedules examined for legibility.
Ø
Prepare a coding
key for all questions.
Ø
Each question is
given a code number.
Ø
Due care to
responses from the respondent.
Ø
Transfer whole
data on the coding sheet.
Ø
Simple and
contingency tables are prepared.
Ø
Group data by
tally method will be presented.
Ø
In simple &
cross tables data presented-characteristics/variable-wise.
20) Problems of Data Processing: There are some
problems of data processing, which
need to be dealt with due care.
21) Writing
Research Report :
Ø
Prepare a
comprehensive Outline.
Ø
Use tables,
tables, charts, graph and pictures to show relationship.
Ø
Use simple
language.
Ø
Be objective in
presenting the research findings.
Ø
Effective
communication of results.
Ø
Distinguish
between technical and popular reporting.
Observational Method:
In survey research, it has
been often complained that the interviewer has to contact respondents in every
day activities and occupations. The respondent may, therefore, not co-operate
whole-heartedly in spite of his good intentions because some other matters or
obligations may bother him at the time of giving interview. In observational
method, this disadvantage is not there. The observer is able to conduct his
study without disturbing the respondent and is able to study the behavior of a
particular respondent over even a long period of time.
Importance of
Observational Method:
According to Mr. Bailey,
observation is decidedly superior to survey research as well as experimentation
in collecting data on non-verbal behavior.
If we compare survey method
with observational method, there are a few advantages of the observational
method:
·
Observational
method is superior to collect information about non-verbal behavior.
·
The researcher
observes the behavior in its natural environment
Observational Method for Collecting Primary Data:
There are a number of
situations where observational research method provides more relevant
information. Observation technique has been used to collect such information
where the overt human behavior can be observed by the trained researcher. The
main quality of observation method is that the personal elements can be reduced
to the minimum. While in personal interviews the personal elements of the
interviewer as well as that of the respondent cannot be controlled to the same
extent as in the case of observation techniques.
In observation method, even
mechanical devices can be used to observe the behavior. It is a definite
advantage that mechanical measuring and recording devices have greater degree
of reliability. Human senses and judgments are used in observation and even in
experimentation but the systematic procedures followed in these two techniques
of data collection have a definite advantage. In a number of developing
countries, business and social researchers are making use of observational and
experimental techniques in primary data collection.
Certain advantages of the
observation techniques may be listed; human error can be reduced; mechanical
devices can secure more accurate data; observations may be made of actual, real
conditions of occurrences; little effort and expense occurs in checking the
results of observations.
In conducting research
several steps are undertaken at any given time. It is not necessary that the
first step be completed before the second is undertaken. Nor is it necessary
that the informal investigation de completed before planning formal research
work. Preliminary fieldwork can be started during the planning stage. Often
tabulation and analysis of the field data are started as soon as the reports
from the field are received. Similarly the report-writing expert can start work
on interpretation before completing fieldwork.
So interdependent are activities that the
first step of the project can determine the nature of the last. If subsequent
activities are not taken into account, serious difficulties may arise and
prevent the completion of a study. At each step of the research process the
requirements of subsequent step must be kept in mind.
Not
all questions are researchable and all research questions are answerable. To be
researchable, a question must be one for which observation or other data
collection provides the answer. Many questions cannot be answered based on
information alone.
Question
of value and policy must often be weighed in management decisions. Management
may be asking, “should we hold out for a liberalization of the seniority rules
in our new labour negotiations?” while information can be brought to bear on
this question, such additional considerations as “fairness to the workers” or
“management’s right to manage” may be important in the decision. It may be
possible for many of these questions of value to be transformed into questions
of fact. Concerning,” fairness to the workers” one might first gather
information from which to estimate the extent and degree to which workers will be affected by a rule change; second,
one could gather opinion statements of the workers about the fairness of
seniority rules. Even so, substantial value elements remain. Left unanswered or
such question as “should we argue for a policy that will adversely affect the
security and well being of older workers who are least well equipped to cope
with this adversity?” even if a question can be answered by facts alone, it
might not be researchable because our procedures or techniques are in
inadequate.
Exploration
An
exploration typically begins with a search of published data. In addition, the
researchers often seek out well informed people on the topic, especially those
who have clearly stated positions on controversial aspects of the problem. Take
the case of a company interested in enhancing its position in a given technology
that appears to hold potential for future growth. This interest or need might
quickly elicit a number of questions:
1.
How fast might
this technology develop?
2.
What is the
likely application of this technology?
3.
What companies
now possess it and which ones are likely to make a major effort to get it?
4.
How much will it
take in resources?
5.
What are the
likely payoffs?
In the above investigation of opportunities, the
researchers would probably begin with specific books and periodicals. They
would be looking for only certain aspects in this literature, such as (1)
recent developments, (2) predictions by informed figures about the prospects of
the technology, (3) identification of those involved in the area, and (4)
accounts of successful ventures and failures by others in the field.
After familiarization with the literature, they might
seek interviews with scientists, engineers, and product developers who are well
known in the field. They would give special attention to those who stand at the
extremes of opinion about the prospects of the technology. If possible, they
would talk with persons having information on particularly thorny problems in
development and application. Of course, much of the information will be
confidential and competitive. However, skilful investigation can uncover many
useful indicators.
An unstructured exploration allows the researchers to
revise the research problem and determine what is needed to secure answers to
the proposed questions. With some problems, exploration may answer the question
and terminate the project. If not, the problem chosen should be doable with in
the constraints that have been imposed.
Designing the study
The design of
the study is the blueprint for fulfilling the objectives and answering
questions. Selecting a design may be complicated by the availability of a large
variety of methods, techniques, procedures, protocols and sampling plans. For
example we may decide on a secondary data study, case study, survey,
experiment, or simulation. If a survey is selected, should it be administrated
by mail, computer, telephone, oral personal interview? Should all relevant data
be collected at one time or at regular Intervals? What kind of structure will
the questionnaire or interview guide possess? What question wording should be
implied? Should the responses be scaled or open ended? How will reliability and
validity be achieved? Will characteristics of the interviewer influence
responses to the measurement questions? What kind of planning should the data
collectors receive? Is a sample or census to be taken? What type of sampling
should be considered? These questions re[present only a few of the decisions
that have to be made when just one method is chosen.
Sampling
Another step in planning the design is to identify
the target population and select the sample we must determine how many people
to interview and how they will be ; hat event s to observe and how many there
will be; or how many records to inspect and which ones. A sample is a part of whole population
selected to represent that population. When researchers undertake sampling
studies, they are interested in estimating one or more population’s values and
/ or testing one or more statistical hypotheses.
Resource allocation and Budgets
General notions about research budgets have a
tendency to single out data collection as a most costly activity. Data
collection requires substantial resources perhaps
not as big as part of the budget as clients would
expect. Without budgetary approval, many research efforts are terminated for
lake of resources. A budget may require significant development and
documentation as in grant contract the search or may require less attention as
in some in-house projects or investigations funded out of the researcher’s own
resources. The researcher who seeks funding must be able not only to
persuasively justify he costs of the project but also to identify the sources
and the methods of funding.
There is a great deal of inter-play between budgeting
and value assessment in any management decision to conduct research. While this
is more prevalent in applied research, even low cost academic studies should be
able to demonstrate value to there intended consumers
Valuing research information
Conceptually the value of applied research is not
difficult to determine. In a business situation, the research should produce
added revenues or reduce expenses in much the same way as any other investment
of resources. One source suggests that the value of research information may be
judged in terms of “the difference between the result of decisions made with
the information and the result that would be made without it.” While such a
criterion is simple to state its actual use presents difficult measurement
problems.
Research proposal
The research proposal is an activity that develops
concurrently with the project planning phases of the study. The proposal thus
incorporates the choices the investigator has made in the preliminary steps.
A written proposal is often required when a study is
be suggested. It assures that the parties understand the projects propose and
proposed methods of investigation. Time and budgets are often spelled out, as
are other responsibilities and obligations. Depending upon the needs and
desires of the client, there may also be substantial background detail and
elaboration of propose techniques.
Every proposal, regardless of length, should include
two basic sections. First is the problem statement. In the brief memo type of
proposal, the problem statement may be a paragraph setting out the situation
and stating the specific task the research will undertake.
A second section includes a statement of what will be
done. Often proposals are much more detailed and include specific measurement
devices that will be used, time and cost budgets, sampling plans, and many
other details.
Pilot testing
A pilot test is conducted to detect weaknesses in
design and instrumentation and provide proxy data for selection of a
probability sample. It should therefore draw subjects form the target
population and simulate procedures and protocols that have been designed for
data collection. If the study is a survey to be executed by mail, the pilot
questionnaire should also be mailed. If the design calls for observation by an
unobtrusive researcher this behavior should be practiced.
Data collection
The gathering of data may range from relatively
simple observation at one location to a grandiose survey of multinational
corporations at sites in different parts of the world. The method selected will
largely determine who the data are collected. Questionnaires standardized test,
observational forms, laboratory notes, and instrument calibration logs are
among the devices used to record raw data.
Analyses and interpretation
After collecting the data, we still need to analyze
it. Data analyzes usually involves reducing accumulated data to a manageable
size, developing summaries, looking for patrons, and applying statistical
technique. Scaled responses on questionnaires and experimental instruments
often require the analyst to drive various functions, and relationships among
variables are frequently explored after that. Further, we must interpret these
findings in light of the clients question or, with theory building research,
determine if the result are consistent with other hypothesis and theory.
Reporting the result
Finally, it is necessary to prepare a report and
transmit the findings and recommendations to the client for the intended
purpose of decision making. The style and organization of the report will
differ according to the target audience, the occasion and the purpose of the
research. In applied research, communication of the results may cover a range
of actions from a conference call, a letter, a written report, or an oral
presentation and some times all of them. Reports should be developed form the
client’s perspective. Thus the sophistication of the design and sampling plan
or the esoteric software used to analyze the data may have helped to establish
the researcher’s credibility, but in the end, solving the problem is for most
on the manager’s mind. Thus, the researcher must accurately assesses the
managers needs throughout the research process and incorporate this
understanding into the final product.
