Research Process

RESEARCH PROCESS

            We have examined some aspects of computer technology that facilitate research and decision making by managers in organizations. So have specifically examined some of the current possibilities for research afforded by the use of software from simple data collection to the development of information systems to facilitate further research and decision making. We described the role of information technology that readily make available to manage the data they need and also indicated that functionally rich data marts and data warehouses expand the scope and quality of decision making. We mentioned management information system, the decision super system, Executive Information System and Operations Research as facilitators of managerial decision making. The obligations of the users of technology in organizations were note. With the development of ever-increasing levels of sophisticated software packages that are easy to understand and use, you as a manger will have in your possession the tools, to face the challenges and solve the problems that business counter. 

            Identification of the broad problems area to be researched, preliminary data gathering through interviews survey, and problem definition. In particular, we discussed how managers could identify the broad problem area through observation, how preliminary data can be collected through unstructured and structured interviews and literature survey, and how the problem can be honed. We defined the term problem as any situation where a gap exists between the actual and desired states. We also touched on the ethical issues confronting researchers.

            We examined the four types of variables – dependent, independent, moderating, and intervening. We also discussed how the theoretical framework is developed and how testable hypotheses are generated there from. We saw example where the same variable can be a dependent, independent, moderating, or interviewing, depending on the situation. We also explained when a null hypothesis would be accepted or rejected based on where as not the results of hypothesis testing meet the significance test. Furthermore, we also briefly discussed the test for hypothesis validation in question research. .

            We examined the basic research design issues and the choice points available to the manager/researcher. We discussed the situations in which exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis testing, and can studies are called for, we examined casual versus correlation studies, and the implications of either for determining the study setting extent of researcher interference, and time horizon of the study. We noted that the unit of analysis refers to the level at which data are aggregated for analysis, and that the time horizon of studies could be one shot or longitudinal. Finally, we examined the circumstances in which each design  decision would be appropriate.

RESEARCH DESIGN

1.         Purpose of the Study : Exploratory, Descriptive, Hypothesis Testing (Analytical and Predictive), Case Study Analysis.              Studies may be either exploratory in nature or descriptive, or may be conducted to test hypothesis. The case study, which is an examination of studies done in other similar organizational situation, is also a method of solving problems, or for understanding phenomena of interest and generating further knowledge in that area. The nature of the study – whether, it is exploratory, descriptive, or hypothesis testing – depends on the stage to which knowledge about the research topic has advanced. The design decision become more rigorous as we proceed from the exploratory stage, where we attempt to explore new areas of organizational research. To the descriptive stage, where we try to describe certain  characteristics of the phenomena of which interest centers, to the hypotheses testing stage, where we examine whether or not the conjecture relationships have been substantiated and an answer to the research question has been obtained. We will not look at each of these in some detail.

a.         Exploratory Study.        An exploratory study is undertaken when not much is known about the situation at hand, or no information is available on how similar problems or research  issues have been solved in the past. In such cases, extensive preliminary work needs to be done to gain familiarity with the phenomena in the situation, and understand what is occurring, before we develop a model and set up a rigorous design for comprehensive investigation. In essence, exploratory studies are undertaken to better comprehend the nature of the problem since very few studies might have been conducted in that area. Extensive interviews with many people might have to be undertaken to get a handle on the situation and understand the phenomena. More rigorous research could then proceed.  Some qualitative studies (as opposed to quantitative data gathered through questionnaires, etc) where data are collected through observation or interviews, are exploratory in nature. When the data reveal some pattern regarding the phenomena of interest, theories are developed and hypotheses formulated for subsequent testing. For example, Henry Mintzberg interviewed managers to explore the nature of managerial work. Based on the analysis of the interview data, he formulated theories of managerial role, the nature and types of managerial activities, and so on . These have been tested in different settings through both interviews and questionnaires surveys. Exploratory studies are also necessary when some facts are known, but more information is needed for  developing a viable theoretical framework. For instance, when we want to get at the important factors that influence the advancement of women in organizations, previous studies might indicates that women are increasingly taking on qualities such as assertiveness, competitiveness, and independence. There is also a perception that a judicious blend of masculine and feminine traits such a being strong but not tough, kind but not soft – is conducive to women’s organizational advancement. These notions apart, there is a need for interviewing women managers who have made it to the top to explore all the relevant variables. This will help to build a robust theory. In sum, exploratory studies are important for obtaining a good grasp of the phenomena of interest and advancing knowledge through subsequent theory building and hypothesis testing. 

b.         Descriptive Study.    A descriptive study is undertaken in order to ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics of the variables of interest in a situation. For interest, a study of a class in terms of the percentage of members who are in their senior and junior years, sex composition, age groupings, number of semesters left until graduation,  and number of business courses taken, can be considered as descriptive in nature. Quite frequently, descriptive studies are undertaken in organizations to learn about and describe the characteristics of a group of employees, as for example, the age, educational level, job status, and length of service of Hispanics of Asians, working in the system. Descriptive studies are also undertaken to understand the characteristics of organizations that follow certain common practices. For example, one might want to know and be able to describe the characteristics of the organizations that implement flexible manufacturing systems (FMS) or that have a certain debt to equity ratio. The goal of a descriptive study, hence, is to offer to the researcher a profiles or to describe relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual, organizationa, industry oriented, or other perspective. In many cases, such information may be vital before even considering certain corrective steps, as for example should the organization consider changing its practices? If a study of the firms in the study indicates that most of them resort to just in time systems to cut inventory costs, may be organization Z should also seriously consider the feasibility of this practice. Or if a descriptive study stress the need to introduce flexible work hours for parents of children under 3 years of age, this may have to be seriously considered, and a much more focused study, initiated to decide on the matter.

c.         Hypotheses Testing.              Studies that engage in hypotheses testing usually explain the nature of certain relationships or establish the differences among groups or the independence of two or more factors in a situation. Hypothesis testing is undertaken to explain the variance in the dependent variable or to predict organizational outcomes. For example, a marketing manager wants to know if the sales of the company will increase if it doubles the advertising dollars. Here, the manager would like to know the nature of the relationship that can be established between advertising and sale by testing the hypothesis: If advertising is increased then sale will also go up.

2.         Types of Investigation: Causal Versus Co-relational           A manager should determine whether a causal or a co-relational study is needs to find an answer to the issue at hand. The former is done when it is necessary to establish a definitive cause and effect relationship. However, if all that the manager wants is a mere identification of the important factor “associated with” the problem, then a co-relational study is called for. In the  former case, the researcher is keen on delineating one or more factors that are undoubtedly causing the problem. In other words, the intention of the researcher conducting a causal study is to be able to state that variable X causes variable Y. So, when variable X is removed or altered in some way, problem Y is solve. Quite often however, it is not just one or more variables that cause a problem in organizations. Given the fact that most of the time there are multiple factors that influence one another and the problem is a chainlike fashion, the researcher might  be asked to identify the crucial factors associated with the problem, rather than establish a cause and effect relationship. The study in which the researcher wants to delineate the cause of one or more problems is called Causal Study. When the researcher is interested in delineating the important variables associated with the problem, the study is called a Co-relational Study. It may be of interest to know that attempt are sometimes made to establish cause and effect relationships through certain types of co-relational or regression analyses, such as cross-lagged correlations and path analysis.

3.         Extent of Research Interference with the Study.           The extent of interference by the researcher with the normal flow of work at the workplace has a direct bearing on whether the study undertaken is causal or co-relational. A co-relational study is conducted in the nature environment of the organization with minimum interference by the researcher with the normal flow of work. For example, if a researcher wants to study the factors influencing training effectiveness ( a co-relational study), all that the individual has to do is develop a theoretical framework collect the relevant data and analyze them to come up with the findings. Through there is some disruption to the normal flow of work in  the system as the researcher interviews employees and administers questionnaires  at the workplace, the researcher’s interference in the routine functioning of the system is minimal as compared to that caused during causal studies. In studies conducted to establish cause and effect relationship, the researcher tries to manipulate certain variables so as to study the effects of such manipulation the dependent variable of interest. In other words, the researcher deliberately changes certain variables in the setting and interferes with the events as they normally occur in the organization. As and example, a researcher might want to study the influence of lighting on worker performance, and hence manipulates the lighting in the work situation to varying intensities.  Here, there is considerable researcher interference with the natural and normal setting. In other cases the researcher might even want to create an altogether new artificial setting where the cause and effect relationships can be studied by manipulating certain variables and tightly controlling certain other, as in a laboratory. Thus there could be varying degrees of interference by the researcher in the manipulation and control of variables in the research study, eight in the natural settingor in an artificial lab setting.

4.         Study Setting : Contrived and Non-contrived.           As we have just seen, organizational research can be done in the natural environment where worked proceeds normally (that is, in no contrived settings) or in artificial, contrived settings. Co-relational studies are invariably conducted in non contrived settings, whereas most rigorous causal studies are done in contrived lab settings. Co-relational studies done in organizations are called field studies. Studies conducted to establish cause and effect relationship using the same natural environment in which employees normally function are called field experiments. Here as we have seen earlier, the researcher does interfere with the natural occurrence of events inasmuch as the independent For example, a manager wanting to know the effects of pay on performance would rise the salary of employees in one units, decrease the pay of employees in a third unit untouched. Here there is a tampering with or manipulating of the pay system to establish a cause and effect relationship between pay and performance, but the study is still conducted in the natural setting and hence is called a field experience. Experiments done  to establish cause and effect relationship beyond the possibility of the least doubt require creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all the extraneous factors are strictly controlled. Similar subjects are chosen carefully to respond to certain manipulated stimuli. These studies are referred to as lab experiments.  Let us give another example to understand the difference among a field study (a non-contrived setting with minimal researcher interference). A field experiment (non-contrived setting but with researcher interference to a moderate extent), and a lab experiment (a contrived setting with researcher interference to an excessive degree).

5.         Unit of Analysis : Individuals, Dyads, Groups, Organizations, Cultures.            The unit of analysis refer to the level of aggregation of the data collected during the subsequent data analysis stage. If, for instance, the problem statement focuses on how to raise the motivational levels of employees in general, then we are interested in individual employees in the organization and would have to field out that we can do to  raise their motivation. Here the unit of analysis is the Individual.  We will be looking at the data gathered form each individual and treating each employee’s response as an individual data source. If the researcher is interested in studying two person interactions, then several two person groups also known as dyads, will become the unit of analysis. Analysis of husband – wife interactions in families and supervisor subordinate relationships at the workplace are good examples of dyads as the unit of analysis. However if the problem statement is related to group effectiveness, then the unit of analysis would  be at the group level. In other words, even though we may gather relevant data from all individuals comprising, say, six groups, we would aggregate the individual data into group data so as to see the difference among the six groups. If we compare different departments in the organization, then the data analysis will be done at the departmental level – that is, the individuals in the department will be treated as one unit and comparisons made treating the department as the unit of analysis. Our research question determines the unit of analysis. For example, if we desire to study group decision making patterns, we would probably be examining such aspects as group size, group structure, cohesiveness, and the like in trying to explain the variance in group decision making. Here, our main interest is not in studying individual decision making but group decision making, and we will be studying the dynamic and operate in several different groups and the  factors that influence group decision making. In such a case, the unit of analysis will be groups. As our research question addresses issues that move away from the individual to dyads, and to groups, organizations, and even nations, so  also does the unit of analysis shift from individuals to dyads, groups organizations, and nations. The characteristic of these “level of analysis” is that the lower levels are subsumed within the higher levels. This, if we study buying behaviours, we have to collect data from , say 60 individuals, and analyze the data. If we want to study group dynamic, we may need to study say, six or more groups and then analyze the data gathered by examining, the  patterns in each of the groups. If we want to study cultural difference among nations, we will have to collect data from different countries and study the underlying patterns of culture n each country.

6.         Time Horizon : Cross Sectional Versus Longitudinal Studies        

a.         Cross Sectional Studies. A study can be done in which data are gathered just once, perhaps over a period of days or weeks or months, in order to answer a research question. Such studies are called one shot or cross-sectional studies.

            Example 1.   Data were collected from stock brokers between April and June of last year to study their concerns in a turbulent stock market. Data with respect to this particular research had not been collected before, nor will be collected again from them for this research.

            Example 2.   A drug company desirous of inverting in research for a new obesity (reduction) pill conducted a survey among obese people to see how many of them would be interested in trying the new pill. This is a one shot or cross sectional study to assess the likely demand for the new product. The purpose of both the studies in the two foregoing examples was to collect data that would be pertinent to find the answer to a research question. Data collection at one point in time was sufficient. Both were cross sectional designs.

b.         Longitudinal Studies.        In some cases, however, the researcher might want to study people or phenomena at more than one point in time in order to answer the research question. For instance, the researcher might want to study employees behaviour before and after a change in the top management, so as to know what effects the change accomplished. Here, because data are gathered at two different points in time the study is not cross-sectional or of the one shot kind, but is carried longitudinally across a period of time. Such studies, as when data on the dependent variable are gathered at two or more points in time to answer the research question, are called longitudinal studies. 

7.         Review of Elements of Research Design.       This concludes the discussions on the basic design issues regarding purpose of the study, type of investigation, extent of researcher interference, study setting unit of analysis, and the time horizon, The researcher would determine the appropriate decisions to be made in the study design based on the problem definition, the research objective, the extent of rigor desired, and cost considerations. Sometimes, because of the time and costs involved, a researcher might be constrained to settle for less than the ideal research design. For instance the researcher might have to  conduct a cross sectional instead of a longitudinal study, do a field study rather than an experimental design, choose a smaller rather than a larger sample size, and so on, thus sub optimizing the research design decisions and setting for a lower level of scientific rigor because of resource constraints. This trade off between rigor and resources will be a deliberate and conscious decision made by the manager/researcher based on the scope of and reasons for the study, and will have to be explicitly stated in any written research proposal.

            A rigorous research design that might involve higher cost is essential if the results of the study are critical for making important decisions affecting the organization’s survival and/or the well being of the vast majority of the publics of the system. It is best to  think about the research design decision issues even as the theoretical framework is developed.

8.         Management Implications.                     Knowledge about research design issues helps the manager to understand what the researcher is attempting to do. The manager also understands why the reports sometimes indicate data analytic results based on small sample sizes, when a lot of time has been spent in collecting data from several scores of individuals, as in the case of studies involving groups, departments, or branch offices.

            One of the important decision a manager has to make before starting a study pertains to how rigorous the study ought to be knowing that more rigorous research designs consume more resources, the manager is in a position to weight the gravity of the problem experienced and decide what kind of design would yield acceptable results in an efficient manager. For example the manager might decide that knowledge of which variables are associated with  employee performance is good enough to enhance performance results and there is no need to ferret out the cause therefore. Such a decision should result not only in economy in resources, but also cause the  least disruption to the smooth flow of work for employees and preclude the need for collecting data longitudinally. Knowledge of interconnections among various aspects of the research design helps managers to call for most effective study, after weighting the nature and magnitude of the problem encountered and the type of solution desired.

            One of the main advantages in fully understanding the difference between causal and correlation studies is tat manager do not fall into the trap of making implicit causal assumptions when to variables are only associated with each other. They realize that A could cause B. or B could cause A, or both A and B could covary because of some third variable. Knowledge of research design details also helps managers to study and intelligently comment on research proposals.

           

9.         Summary.     We examined the basic design issues and the choice points available to the manager /researcher. We discussed the  situations in which exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis-testing, and case studies are called for. We examined causal versus correlation studies, and the implication of other for determining the study setting, extent of researcher interference, and time horizon of the study. We noted that the unit of analysis refers to the level at which data are aggregated for  analysis, and that the unit of analysis refers to the level at which data are aggregated for analysis, and that the time horizon of studies could be one shot or longitudinal. Finally, we examined the circumstances in which each design decision would be appropriate.

10.       STEPS FOR DESIGNING A RESEARCH PROJECT FOR BUSINESS:

a.                  OBSERVATION (broad area of research interest identified)

Observation and focusing on the situation is the process through which broad problem area is identified. Broad problem is referring to the entire situation where one sees a possible need for research and problem solving. The specific issues that need to be researched within this situation may not be identified at this stage. Here the researcher might become aware of the problem as whole (not in depth) but not be able to pinpoint what exactly it is.

b.                 PRELIMINARY DATA COLLECTION (interviewing Literature survey)

Data may be of two types:

v     Primary data

v     Secondary data

The nature of information and data needed by the researcher for the purpose could be broadly classified under the following three head:

v     Background information of the organization:

It is important for the researcher to be well acquainted with the background of the company or organization studied. Such details of the company can be obtained from available published records, the websites of the company, its archives, organization’s records and other sources.

v     Managerial philosophy, company policies and other structural aspects

Such information gathering would be particularly useful when newly installed systems, processes, and procedures don’t produce the described results. Information on the company policies, structures, workflow, management philosophy and the like can be obtained by asking direct questions of the management. 

v     Perceptions, attitudes, and behavioral responses

Employees perceptions of the work and work environment and their attitudinal and behavioral responses can be tapped by talking to them, observing them and seeking their responses through questionnaires, structured and unstructured interviews.

            c.         PROBLEM DEFINITION (Research problem delineated)

A problem is a situation where a gap exists between the actual and desired ideal states. One should know what exactly the issue is, for which he seek answers. A problem does not necessarily mean that some thing is seriously wrong with a current situation that needs to be rectified immediately. A problem could simply indicate an interest in an issue where finding the right answers might help to improve an existing situation.

After the interviews and the literature review, the researcher is in a position to narrow down the problem from its original broad base and define the issues of concern more clearly. No research can find the good solutions to the problems until the researcher is not clear about the situation exactly. When the researcher is clear about the actual problem, he will in better position to think and give the remedies of this.

d.         THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK (Variables clearly identified and labeled)

After conducting the interviews, completing a literature survey and defining the problem. One is ready to develop a theoretical framework. A theoretical framework is conceptual model of how one theorizes or makes logical sense of the relationships among the several factors that have been identified as important to the problem. This theory flows logically form the documentation of previous research in the problem area. Integrating one’s logical beliefs with published research, taking into consideration the boundaries and constraints governing the situation, is pivotal in developing a scientific basis for investigating the research problem.

The theoretical framework discusses the interrelationships among variables that are deemed to be integral to the dynamics of the situation being investigated. Developing such a conceptual framework helps us to postulate or hypothesize and test certain relationships and thus to improve our understanding of the dynamics of situation. A variable is anything that can take differing or varying values.

e.         GENERATION OF HYPOTHESES

A hypothesis can be defined as a logically conjectured relationship between two or more variables expressed in the form of a testable statement. Relationship is conjectured on the basis of the network of associations established in the theoretical framework formulated for the research study.  By testing the hypotheses and conforming the conjectured relationships, it is expected that solutions can be found to correct the problem encountered.

Once we have identified the important variables in a situation and established the relationships among them through logical reasoning in the theoretical framework we are in position to test whether the relationships that have been theorized do in fact hold true.  The results of hypotheses tests offer us some clues as to what could be changed in the situation to solve the problem. Formulating such testable statements is called hypotheses development.