Designing of Data Collection Instruments for research in Business

DESIGNING OF DATA COLLECTION INSTRUMENTS FOR RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

In primary data collection, we collect the data ourselves using methods such as interviews and questionnaires. The key point here is that the data we collect is unique to us and our research and, until we publish, no one else has access to it.

Primary Data Collection Methods

There are many methods of collecting primary data and the main methods include:

• questionnaires
• interviews
• focus group interviews
• observation
• case-studies
• diaries
• critical incidents
• portfolios

 

The primary data, which is generated by the above methods, may be qualitative in nature (usually in the form of words) or quantitative (usually in the form of numbers or where you can make counts of words used).

QUESTIONNAIRES

Questionnaires are a popular means of collecting data, but are difficult to design and often require many rewrites before an acceptable questionnaire is produced.
Advantages:

• Can be used as a method in its own right or as a basis for interviewing or a telephone survey.
• Can be posted, e-mailed or faxed.
• Can cover a large number of people or organizations.
• Wide geographic coverage.
• Relatively cheap.
• No prior arrangements are needed.
• Avoids embarrassment on the part of the respondent.
• Respondent can consider responses.
• Possible anonymity of respondent.
• No interviewer bias.

Disadvantages:

• Design problems.
• Questions have to be relatively simple.
• Historically low response rate (although inducements may help).
• Time delay whilst waiting for responses to be returned.
• Require a return deadline.
• Several reminders may be required.
• Assumes no literacy problems.
• No control over who completes it.
• Not possible to give assistance if required.
• Problems with incomplete questionnaires.
• Replies not spontaneous and independent of each other.
• Respondent can read all questions beforehand and then decide whether to complete or not. For example, perhaps because it is too long, too complex, uninteresting, or too personal.

DESIGN OF QUESTIONNAIRES

Theme and covering letter

The general theme of the questionnaire should be made explicit in a covering letter. We should state who we are; why the data is required; give, if necessary, an assurance of confidentiality and/or anonymity; and contact number and address or telephone number. This ensures that the respondents know what they are committing themselves to, and also that they understand the context of their replies. If possible, we should offer an estimate of the completion time. Instructions for return should be included with the return date made obvious. For example: ‘It would be appreciated if you could return the completed questionnaire by... if at all possible’.

Instructions for completion

We need to provide clear and unambiguous instructions for completion. Within most questionnaires these are general instructions and specific instructions for particular question structures. It is usually best to separate these, supplying the general instructions as a preamble to the questionnaire, but leaving the specific instructions until the questions to which they apply. The response method should be indicated (circle, tick, cross, etc.). Wherever possible, and certainly if a slightly unfamiliar response system is employed, we should give an example.

Appearance

Appearance is usually the first feature of the questionnaire to which the recipient reacts. A neat and professional look will encourage further consideration of your request, increasing our response rate. In addition, careful thought to layout should help our analysis. There are a number of simple rules to help improve questionnaire appearance:

·         Liberal spacing makes the reading easier.

·         Photo-reduction can produce more space without reducing content.

·         Consistent positioning of response boxes, usually to the right, speeds up completion and also avoids inadvertent omission of responses.

·         Choose the font style to maximize legibility.

·         Differentiate between instructions and questions. Either lower case and capitals can be used, or responses can be boxed.

Length

There may be a strong temptation to include any vaguely interesting questions, but we should resist this at all costs. Excessive size can only reduce response rates. If a long questionnaire is necessary, then we must give even more thought to appearance. It is best to leave pages unnumbered; for respondents to flick to the end and see ‘page 27’ can be very disconcerting!

Order

Probably the most crucial stage in questionnaire response is the beginning. Once the respondents have started to complete the questions they will normally finish the task, unless it is very long or difficult. Consequently, we need to select the opening questions with care. Usually the best approach is to ask for biographical details first, as the respondents should know all the answers without much thought. Another benefit is that an easy start provides practice in answering questions.

Once the introduction has been achieved the subsequent order will depend on many considerations. We should be aware of the varying importance of different questions. Essential information should appear early, just in case the questionnaire is not completed. For the same reasons, relatively unimportant questions can be placed towards the end. If questions are likely to provoke the respondent and remain unanswered, these too are best left until the end, in the hope of obtaining answers to everything else.

Coding

If analysis of the results is to be carried out using a statistical package or spreadsheet it is advisable to code non-numerical responses when designing the questionnaire, rather than trying to code the responses when they are returned. An example of coding is:

The coded responses (1 or 2) are then used for the analysis.

Thank you

Respondents to questionnaires rarely benefit personally from their efforts and the least the researcher can do is to thank them. Even though the covering letter will express appreciation for the help given, it is also a nice gesture to finish the questionnaire with a further thank you.

Questions

·         Keep the questions short, simple and to the point; avoid all unnecessary words.

·         Use words and phrases that are unambiguous and familiar to the respondent. For example, ‘dinner’ has a number of different interpretations; use an alternative expression such as ‘evening meal’.

·         Only ask questions that the respondent can answer. Hypothetical questions should be avoided. Avoid calculations and questions that require a lot of memory work, for example, ‘How many people stayed in your hotel last year?’

·         Avoid loaded or leading questions that imply a certain answer. For example, by mentioning one particular item in the question, ‘Do you agree that Colgate toothpaste is the best toothpaste?’

·         Vacuous words or phrases should be avoided. ‘Generally’, ‘usually’, or ‘normally’ are imprecise terms with various meanings. They should be replaced with quantitative statements, for example, ‘at least once a week’.

·         Questions should only address a single issue. For example, questions like: ‘Do you take annual holidays to Spain?’ should be broken down into two discreet stages, firstly find out if the respondent takes an annual holiday, and then secondly find out if they go to Spain.

·         Do not ask two questions in one by using ‘and’. For example, ‘Did you watch television last night and read a newspaper?’

·         Avoid double negatives. For example, ‘Is it not true that you did not read a newspaper yesterday?’ Respondents may tackle a double negative by switching both negatives and then assuming that the same answer applies. This is not necessarily valid.

·         State units required but do not aim for too high a degree of accuracy. For instance, use an interval rather than an exact figure:

‘How much did you earn last year?’

Less than Rs. 10,000 [   ]

Rs 10,000 but less than Rs. 20,000 [   ]

·        Avoid emotive or embarrassing words – usually connected with race, religion, politics, sex, money.

TYPES OF QUESTIONS

Closed questions

A question is asked and then a number of possible answers are provided for the respondent. The respondent selects the answer which is appropriate. Closed questions are particularly useful in obtaining factual information:

Sex:    Male [   ] Female [   ]

Did you watch television last night?     Yes [   ] No [   ]

Some ‘Yes/No’ questions have a third category ‘Do not know’. Experience shows that as long as this alternative is not mentioned people will make a choice. Also the phrase ‘Do not know’ is ambiguous:

Do you agree with the introduction of the EMU?

Yes [   ] No [   ] Do not know [   ]

What was your main way of traveling to the hotel? Tick one box only.

For summary and analysis purposes, a ‘score’ of 1 to 7 may be allocated to the seven points of the scale, thus quantifying the various degrees of opinion expressed. This procedure has some disadvantages. It is implicitly assumed that two people with the same strength of feeling will mark the same point on the scale. This almost certainly will not be the case. When faced with a semantic differential scale, some people will never, as a matter of principle, use the two end indicators of 1 and 7. Effectively, therefore, they are using a five-point scale. Also scoring the scale 1 to 7 assumes that they represent equidistant points on the continuous spectrum of opinion. This again is probably not true. Nevertheless, within its limitations, the semantic differential can provide a useful way of measuring and summarizing subjective opinions.

Other types of questions to determine peoples’ opinions or attitudes are:

Which one/two words best describes...?

Which of the following statements best describes...?

How much do you agree with the following statement...?

Open questions

An open question such as ‘What are the essential skills a manager should possess?’ should be used as an adjunct to the main theme of the questionnaire and could allow the respondent to elaborate upon an earlier more specific question. Open questions inserted at the end of major sections, or at the end of the questionnaire, can act as safety valves, and possibly offer additional information. However, they should not be used to introduce a section since there is a high risk of influencing later responses. The main problem of open questions is that many different answers have to be summarized and possibly coded.

Testing – pilot survey

Questionnaire design is fraught with difficulties and problems. A number of rewrites will be necessary, together with refinement and rethinks on a regular basis. Do not assume that you will write the questionnaire accurately and perfectly at the first attempt. If poorly designed, you will collect inappropriate or inaccurate data and good analysis cannot then rectify the situation.

To refine the questionnaire, you need to conduct a pilot survey. This is a small-scale trial prior to the main survey that tests all your question planning. Amendments to questions can be made. After making some amendments, the new version would be re-tested. If this re-test produces more changes, another pilot would be undertaken and so on. For example, perhaps responses to open-ended questions become closed; questions which are all answered the same way can be omitted; difficult words replaced, etc.

It is usual to pilot the questionnaires personally so that the respondent can be observed and questioned if necessary. By timing each question, you can identify any questions that appear too difficult, and you can also obtain a reliable estimate of the anticipated completion time for inclusion in the covering letter. The result can also be use to test the coding and analytical procedures to be performed later.

Distribution and return

The questionnaire should be checked for completeness to ensure that all pages are present and that none is blank or illegible. It is usual to supply a prepaid addressed envelope for the return of the questionnaire. You need to explain this in the covering letter and reinforce it at the end of the questionnaire, after the ‘Thank you’.

INTERVIEWS

Whether interviews are conducted face to face or over the telephone, following certain procedures can help us to get the most out of them. These procedures are as follows:

• Determine the approach
• Determine general and specific research questions
• Draft the interview questions
• Pilot test the protocol
• Arrange a schedule of interviews [not discussed below]
• Prepare to record the responses
• Conduct the interviews
• Analyze interview data

Interviewing Technique

What we do or say as interviewers can make or break a study. Respondents often react more to their feelings about the interviewer than to the content of the questions. If is also important that the interviewer ask the questions properly, record the responses accurately, and probe meaningfully. To achieve these aims, the interviewer must be trained to carry out those procedures that foster a good interviewing relationship.

1)     To increase the respondent’s receptiveness

2)     Make introduction friendly to make interview successful

3)     Take appropriate measures if the respondent is busy or away

4)     Build good interviewing relationship

5)     Carefully gather data to reduce the errors

6)     Record the interview for later perusal

7)     Selection and training

Interview Problem

In personal interviewing, the researcher must deal with bias and cost. While each is discussed separately, they are interrelated. Biases results grow out of three types of error:

1)     Non-response Error

2)     Response Error

3)     Sampling Error

4)     Cost

PERSONAL INTERVIEW

Advantages:

• Serious approach by respondent resulting in accurate information.
• Good response rate.
• Completed and immediate.
• Possible in-depth questions.
• Interviewer in control and can give help if there is a problem.
• Can investigate motives and feelings.
• Can use recording equipment.
• Characteristics of respondent assessed – tone of voice, facial expression, hesitation, etc.
• Can use props.
• If one interviewer used, uniformity of approach.
• Used to pilot other methods.

Disadvantages:

• Need to set up interviews.
• Time consuming.
• Geographic limitations.
• Can be expensive.
• Normally need a set of questions.
• Respondent bias – tendency to please or impress, create false personal image, or end interview quickly.
• Embarrassment possible if personal questions.
• Transcription and analysis can present problems – subjectivity.
• If many interviewers, training required.

Types of interview

Structured

·         Based on a carefully worded interview schedule.

·         Frequently require short answers with the answers being ticked off.

·         Useful when there are a lot of questions which are not particularly contentious or thought provoking.

·         Respondent may become irritated by having to give over-simplified answers.

Semi-structured

The interview is focused by asking certain questions but with scope for the respondent to express him or herself at length.

Unstructured

This also called an in-depth interview. The interviewer begins by asking a general question. The interviewer then encourages the respondent to talk freely. The interviewer uses an unstructured format, the subsequent direction of the interview being determined by the respondent’s initial reply. The interviewer then probes for elaboration – ‘Why do you say that?’ or, ‘That’s interesting, tell me more’ or, ‘Would you like to add anything else?’ being typical probes.

The following section is a step-by-step guide to conducting an interview. We should remember that all situations are different and therefore one may need refinements to the approach.

Planning an interview:

·        List the areas in which we require information.

·        Decide on type of interview.

·        Transform areas into actual questions.

·        Try them out on a friend or relative.

·        Make an appointment with respondent(s) – discussing details of why and how long.

·        Try and fix a venue and time when we will not be disturbed.

TELEPHONE INTERVIEW

This is an alternative form of interview to the personal, face-to-face interview.

Advantages:

·         Relatively cheap.

·         Quick.

·         Can cover reasonably large numbers of people or organisations.

·         Wide geographic coverage.

·         High response rate – keep going till the required number.

·         No waiting.

·         Spontaneous response.

·         Help can be given to the respondent.

·         Can tape answers.

Disadvantages:

·         Often connected with selling.

·         Questionnaire required.

·         Not everyone has a telephone.

·         Repeat calls are inevitable – average 2.5 calls to get someone.

·         Time is wasted.

·         Straightforward questions are required.

·         Respondent has little time to think.

·         Cannot use visual aids.

·         Can cause irritation.

·         Good telephone manner is required.

·         Question of authority.

SURVEY STRATEGY

This means getting down to the particulars of instrument design. Prominent among the strategic concerns are:

1. What communication mode will be used?
2. How much structure should be placed on the question-and-answer processes?
3. Should the questioning approach be disguised and, if so, to what degree?

THE INSTRUMENT DEVELOPMENT PROCESS

Question Hierarchy

The process of moving from the general management objective or problem to specific measurement questions goes through four major question levels:

1)     The management question

2)     The research questions(s)

3)     The investigative questions

4)     The measurement questions

1. The management question -that problem which the manager must answer
2. The research questions(s) – that basic information question or questions which the researcher must answer in order to contribute to the solution of the management question
3. The investigative questions – those specific questions which the researcher must ask himself in order to answer his research questions. Within this class there may be several levels of questions as the researcher moves from the general to the specific.
4.  The measurement questions – those questions which respondents must answer if the researcher is to gather the needed information.

Schedule Design Process

The procedure to follow in developing a survey instrument varies from case to case, but a useful generalized approach consists of five major steps:

Question Construction

Drafting the questions begins once you decide on the information needed and the collection processes to use. In developing a survey instrument, there are four major decision areas:

1)     Question content

2)     Question wording

3)     Response structure, and

4)     Question sequence

Information Need Determination

The research question hierarchy is a major part of this first step. In many research studies, an explanatory investigation is necessary to assure that one understands the full dimensions of the subject.

Researchers are concerned with adequate coverage of the topic and with securing the information in its most usable form. This step is a good check on whether our plan meets our data needs.

Data Gathering Process Decisions

At this stage we must choose the manner by which to gather the data. First, which communication process or combination of processes is most appropriate? Personal or impersonal? Telephone or face-to-face? In-home or at other sites?

The degree of question and response structure must also be determined. Question structure is affected largely by the communication mode chosen.

Instrument Drafting

We begin actual instrument design by drafting specific measurement questions. In doing this we must consider both the subject content and the wording of each question. As these question formulations are developed we need also to establish some logical question sequences. Often the content in one question assumes that certain questions have already been asked. We must also consider the psychological order of the questions. For example, questions which are more interesting, easier to answer and less threatening usually are placed early in the sequence to encourage response and promote rapport.

Instrument Testing

Once a first draft of the instrument has been developed it must be tested. The first testing can usually be done among one’s colleagues. The questionnaire which we have so painstakingly put together will almost immediately be wound weak in some respects. After this in-house testing it should be revised and taken to the field for testing. Usually the respondents should not know that their interrogation is only for testing purposes.

It is important in testing that we simulate field conditions as much as possible.

Specification of Procedures

After the questioning device has been developed it is important to specify the procedures for its use. This is one way in a more standardized manner. Such instructions usually should give the rationale behind the question, explain the frame of reference the designer has used, and mention any previous questions to which this one is especially related.

 

Question Construction

Drafting the questions begins once you decide on the information needed and the collection processes to use. In developing a survey instrument, there are four major decision areas:

1. Question content
2. Question wording
3. Response structure, and
4. Question sequence

We have already discussed that If we need to collect primary data, we must construct a data collection instrument. In most cases this consists of a questionnaire. Again, quality questionnaire construction requires reference to the purpose and objectives of the study.

We know that the final section of the questionnaire usually contains classification questions. These questions ascertain information on the characteristics of the respondent, such as age, sex, income, education, marital status and any other information that may be of interest to the small business. Classification questions should offer specific response categories rather than asking respondents to supply specific information. Respondents usually are more willing to check a category such as 55-65 or Rs 25,000-Rs 35,000 than to report exact age or income.

Consider the following criteria when developing a questionnaire:

1.      Relevancy: Does the question relate to the topic? Each question and each word in each question should be viewed by the researcher and respondent as relevant.

2.      Brevity: Questions should be 20 words or less excluding answer categories.

3.      Objectivity: Questions should not suggest a particular answer by leading the respondent.

4.      Nonambiguity: Is the question expressed clearly? Avoid unfamiliar words and words with unfamiliar meanings as well as words such as near, much, most, few, often and occasionally. Also avoid should, could and might.

5.      Specificity: Can potential study participants answer the question? Does the question demand knowledge and information that the respondent does not have? Respondents sometimes provide answers to questions regardless of knowledge so that they do not appear ignorant.

6.      Vocabulary: Can potential study participants understand the question? Select words that the least educated respondent can understand. The language should be natural and familiar.

7.      Question type: Should the information be gathered using an open or closed question?

Open-end questions are imperative when a researcher wants to assess top-of-the-mind awareness of a product or brand through unaided recall. Open-end questions should be used when a researcher wants to take special care not to influence question answers.

Closed-end questions will be aided by definition, since possible answers are provided. The possible answers are known prior to data gathering. Only the frequency with which answers are given is unknown. Potential limitations of closed-end questions include:

· position bias--the order of the responses can influence choice. This is particularly important for non-factual, e.g., "reasons why" questions.

·response categories need to be mutually exclusive (no overlapping categories) and collectively exhaustive (all possible categories).

The only way to know if our data collection instrument is ready to use is to have several people try it. This is known as pretesting. Pretest data collection instrument on people who are as similar as possible to the research population with respect to age, education, knowledge of the market and other factors that could influence the quality and quantity of data collected. When pretesting, we should ask  testers to fill out the instrument in the same manner in which we anticipate collecting the data, i.e., if we plan a telephone survey, personal interviews or mail survey, then pretest over the telephone, in an interview setting or have people fill out the questionnaire without assistance. After the test group has completed the instrument, we must ask if there were any questions they did not understand. In an effort to avoid looking stupid, respondents may fill out a question even if they do not understand it. We must also check to see if the response categories are appropriate. Sometimes we will need to add another category or revise the wording of possible responses.

 

OBSERVATION

Besides collecting data visually, observation involves listening, reading, smelling, and touching, Behavioral scientists define observation in terms of animal or human behavior, but this too is limiting. Observation includes the full range of monitoring behavioral and non-behavioral activities and conditions, which can be classified as follows:

1.      Non-behavioral Observation

a)     Record analysis

b)     Physical condition analysis

c)      Physical process analysis

2.      Behavioral Observation

a)     Nonverbal analysis

b)     Linguistic analysis

c)      Extralinguistic analysis

d)     Spatial analysis

Observation Method

Observation is the only method available to gather certain types of information. The study of records, mechanical processes, and lower animals falls into this category. Most small children and illiterate and functionally illiterate people cannot be surveyed effectively or subjected to experimentation.

Another value of observation is that we can collect the original data at the time they occur. We need not depend upon reports by others.

A third strength is that we can secure information that most participants would ignore either because it is so common and expected or because it is not seen as relevant.

The fourth advantage of observation is that it alone can capture the whole event as it occurs in its natural environment.

Finally, subjects seem to accept an observational intrusion better than questioning. It is less demanding of them and normally has a less biasing effect on their behavior than does questioning.

Observer-Subject Relationship

Interrogation presents a clear opportunity for interviewer bias. The problem is less pronounced with observation but is still real. The relationship between observer and subject may be viewed from three perspectives:

1. Whether the observation is direct or indirect
2. Whether the observer’s presence is known or unknown to the subject, and
3. What role the observer plays.

EXPERIMENTATION

Experimentation is studies involving intervention by the researcher beyond that required for measurement. The usual intervention is to manipulate some variable in a setting and observe how it affects the subjects being studied. The research manipulates the independent or explanatory variable and then observes whether the hypothesized dependent variable is affected by the intervention.

Advantages

The foremost advantage is the researcher’s ability to manipulate the independent variable. The probability that changes in the dependent variable are a function of that manipulation increases consequently. Also, a control group serves as a comparison to assess the existence and potency of the manipulation.

The second advantage of the experiment is that contamination from extraneous variables can be controlled more effectively than with other designs.

Third, the convenience and cost of experimentation are superior to other methods.

Fourth, replication or repeating an experiment with different subject groups and conditions leads to the discovery of an average effect of the independent variable across people, situations, and times.

Finally, researchers can use naturally occurring events and, to some extent, field experiments to reduce the subjects’ perceptions of the researcher as a source of intervention or deviation in their every day lives.

Experimental Research Designs:

The many experimental designs vary widely in terms of their power to control contamination of the relationship between independent and dependent variables. The most widely accepted designs are based on this characteristic of control:

1. Pre-experiments
2. True experiments, and
3. Field experiments

Pre-experimental Design

All three pre-experimental designs are weak in terms of their scientific measurement power. That is, they fail to control adequately the various threats to internal validity.

1. One-Shot Case Study
2. The One-Group Pretest-Posttest Design
3. The Static Group Comparison

True Experimental Design

The major deficiency of the previous designs is that they fail to provide comparison groups that are truly equivalent. The way to achieve equivalency is through matching and random assignment. With randomly assigned groups, we can employ tests of statistical significance of the observed differences.

Different level of independent variable may also be used with one level serving as the control.

1. Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design
2. Posttest Only Control Group Design
3. Completely Randomized Design
4. Randomized Block Design
5. Latin Square Design
6. Factorial Design
7. Covariance Analysis

FIELD EXPERIMENTS

Under field conditions, we often cannot control enough of the extraneous variables or the experimental treatment to use a true experimental design. Because the stimulus condition occurs in a natural environment, a field experiment is required. A quasi-experiment is inferior to a true experimental design but is usually superior to pre-experimental designs.

1. Nonequivalent Control Group Design
2. Separate Sample Pretest-Posttest Design
3. Group Time Series Design

Each of data collection instruments has strengths and weaknesses as shown in the table below. We may use it to help you determine the best instrument for our needs:

For summary and analysis purposes, a ‘score’ of 1 to 7 may be allocated to the seven points of the scale, thus quantifying the various degrees of opinion expressed. This procedure has some disadvantages. It is implicitly assumed that two people with the same strength of feeling will mark the same point on the scale. This almost certainly will not be the case. When faced with a semantic differential scale, some people will never, as a matter of principle, use the two end indicators of 1 and 7. Effectively, therefore, they are using a five-point scale. Also scoring the scale 1 to 7 assumes that they represent equidistant points on the continuous spectrum of opinion. This again is probably not true. Nevertheless, within its limitations, the semantic differential can provide a useful way of measuring and summarizing subjective opinions.

Other types of questions to determine peoples’ opinions or attitudes are:

Which one/two words best describes...?

Which of the following statements best describes...?

How much do you agree with the following statement...?

Open questions

An open question such as ‘What are the essential skills a manager should possess?’ should be used as an adjunct to the main theme of the questionnaire and could allow the respondent to elaborate upon an earlier more specific question. Open questions inserted at the end of major sections, or at the end of the questionnaire, can act as safety valves, and possibly offer additional information. However, they should not be used to introduce a section since there is a high risk of influencing later responses. The main problem of open questions is that many different answers have to be summarized and possibly coded.

Ways of Classifying the Role:

The role of the participant observer is not simple. There are different ways of classifying the role:

• Researcher as employee.
• Researcher as an explicit role.
• Interrupted involvement.
• Observation alone.

Researcher as employee

The researcher works within the organization alongside other employees, effectively as one of them. The role of the researcher may or may not be explicit and this will have implications for the extent to which he or she will be able to move around and gather information and perspectives from other sources. This role is appropriate when the researcher needs to become totally immersed and experience the work or situation at first hand.

There are a number of dilemmas. Do you tell management and the unions? Friendships may compromise the research. What are the ethics of the process? Can anonymity be maintained? Skill and competence to undertake the work may be required. The research may be over a long period of time.

Researcher as an explicit role

The researcher is present every day over a period of time, but entry is negotiated in advance with management and preferably with employees as well. The individual is quite clearly in the role of a researcher who can move around, observe, interview and participate in the work as appropriate. This type of role is the most favored, as it provides many of the insights that the complete observer would gain, whilst offering much greater flexibility without the ethical problems that deception entails.

Interrupted involvement

The researcher is present sporadically over a period of time, for example, moving in and out of the organization to deal with other work or to conduct interviews with, or observations of, different people across a number of different organizations. It rarely involves much participation in the work.

Observation alone

The observer role is often disliked by employees since it appears to be ‘eavesdropping’. The inevitable detachment prevents the degree of trust and friendship forming between the researcher and respondent, which is an important component in other methods.

Choice of roles:

The role adopted depends on the following:

• Purpose of the research: Does the research require continued longitudinal involvement (long period of time), or will in-depth interviews, for example, conducted over time give the type of insights required?
• Cost of the research: To what extent can the researcher afford to be committed for extended periods of time? Are there additional costs such as training?
• The extent to which access can be gained: Gaining access where the role of the researcher is either explicit or covert can be difficult, and may take time.
• The extent to which the researcher would be comfortable in the role: If the researcher intends to keep his identity concealed, will he or she also feel able to develop the type of trusting relationships that are important? What are the ethical issues?

The amount of time the researcher has at his disposal: Some methods involve a considerable amount of time. If time is a problem alternate approaches will have to be sought.